Quazi Marufur Rahman

PyTorch Stopped Working After a Kernel Upgrade? Here's the Fix

2026-02-18T00:00:00+00:00

If you updated your Linux system recently and suddenly PyTorch refuses to import with this error:

ImportError: libtorch_cpu.so: cannot enable executable stack as shared object requires: Invalid argument

You are not alone. This is a known compatibility issue between newer Linux kernels (6.x and above) and older PyTorch builds. Here is what is going on and how to fix it in two minutes.

What Is Happening?

When a shared library (a .so file) is compiled, it carries a small flag that tells the operating system what kind of memory permissions it needs. One of those flags is called PT_GNU_STACK. It can be set to RW (read and write) or RWE (read, write, and execute).

Older versions of PyTorch — including the widely used 1.x releases — shipped libtorch_cpu.so with the stack marked as executable (RWE). This was never great from a security standpoint, but older Linux kernels quietly allowed it.

Linux kernel 6.x changed that. It now strictly refuses to load any shared library that asks for an executable stack. When Python tries to import PyTorch, the kernel sees that flag, rejects the library, and you get the Invalid argument error above.

Your PyTorch installation did not break. Your kernel got stricter. The .so file just has a flag that needs to be cleared.

The Fix

You need a tool called patchelf. It can edit ELF binary files (the format Linux uses for executables and libraries) without recompiling anything.

Step 1 — Install patchelf

On Fedora / RHEL:

sudo dnf install patchelf

On Ubuntu / Debian:

sudo apt install patchelf

Step 2 — Clear the executable stack flag

Point it at the offending file inside your virtual environment:

patchelf --clear-execstack .venv/lib/python3.9/site-packages/torch/lib/libtorch_cpu.so

Adjust the path to match your Python version and virtual environment location.

Step 3 — Verify it works

python -c "import torch; print(torch.__version__)"

That should now print your PyTorch version without any errors.

Why Not Just Use `execstack`?

There is another tool called execstack that does a similar job. However, libtorch_cpu.so is a very large file with an unusual internal layout — its sections are not stored in the standard order. execstack gets confused by this and exits with an error. patchelf handles it without complaints.

Will This Break Anything?

No. The executable stack flag was almost certainly set by accident during PyTorch’s build process, not because the library actually needs an executable stack to function. Clearing the flag tells the kernel “this library does not need to execute code from the stack,” which is the correct and more secure behavior. PyTorch works perfectly fine after the change.

One Thing to Keep in Mind

This is a change to the installed file on disk. If you recreate your virtual environment or reinstall PyTorch, you will need to run the patchelf command again. You could add it as a post-install step in your setup script to avoid surprises.

Newer PyTorch releases (2.x and above) have already fixed this in their build pipeline, so if you are able to upgrade, that is the cleanest long-term solution. But if you are stuck on an older version for compatibility reasons, patchelf gets you running again in seconds.

LoRA: Fine-tuning Large Matrices with Low Rank Adaptation

2024-09-20T00:00:00+00:00

Introduction

Fine-tuning large models, especially in deep learning, can be computationally expensive and slow. A common challenge when working with large language models (LLMs) or other neural networks is how to adapt or fine-tune these models without updating all the parameters. Fine-tuning large matrices in these models can be resource-intensive due to the sheer size of the weight matrices.

One effective solution to this problem is the LoRA (Low-Rank Adaptation) technique. LoRA allows for a more efficient fine-tuning process by decomposing large weight matrices into smaller, low-rank matrices. This not only reduces the number of trainable parameters but also preserves the integrity of the pretrained model.

In this blog post, we’ll break down the LoRA technique step by step, using a simple Python code example to show how it works. By the end of the article, you’ll have a clear understanding of how LoRA can be used to fine-tune large matrices efficiently.

The Problem with Fine-Tuning Large Models

When you fine-tune a large model, you typically adjust its weight matrices based on new training data. In modern neural networks, these weight matrices can be massive. For example, a simple layer in a model may have a weight matrix of size $W$, where $W$ can be hundreds or even thousands of dimensions large.

Fine-tuning this large matrix directly has two major challenges:

Memory Constraints: The size of these matrices means that storing and updating them can be expensive in terms of memory.
Overfitting Risk: If you update all parameters, especially when your new training dataset is small, you risk overfitting to the new data and losing the general knowledge from the pretrained model.

Enter LoRA: Fine-Tuning with Low-Rank Matrices

LoRA provides an elegant solution to these challenges by freezing the original weight matrix $W$ and introducing two smaller matrices, $A$ and $B$, which have a much lower rank. The idea is that instead of updating $W$ directly, you approximate its updates using the product of two smaller matrices.

Here’s how LoRA works:

Keep the original weight matrix $W$ fixed. This ensures that the model retains the general knowledge from pretraining.
Introduce two low-rank matrices:
- $A$ with dimensions $(d_{\text{out}}, r)$
- $B$ with dimensions $(r, d_{\text{in}})$
Where $r$ is a small integer that represents the rank. $r$ is much smaller than either $d_{\text{out}}$ or $d_{\text{in}}$, the dimensions of the original weight matrix $W$.
Compute the low-rank update: The update to $W$ is given by the product of these two matrices: $\Delta W = A \times B$
Add the update to the original matrix: The final weight matrix used during training becomes: $W_{\text{new}} = W + A \times B$

This allows the model to adjust its weights for the new task without needing to update all parameters in the original weight matrix.

By learning these two smaller matrices, LoRA drastically reduces the number of trainable parameters, making the fine-tuning process much more efficient.

Step-by-Step LoRA Algorithm

Let’s break down the LoRA algorithm step by step:

Step 1: Initialization

Start with a pretrained model: We begin with a model that has already been trained on a large dataset. The weight matrices in this model, like $W$, are already optimized for general tasks.
Choose a low-rank $r$: The rank $r$ is a small number that dictates the size of the low-rank matrices $A$ and $B$. For example, if $W$ is a $6 \times 6$ matrix, we might choose $r = 2$.

Step 2: LoRA Decomposition

Decompose the update: Instead of updating $W$ directly, we introduce two smaller matrices, $A$ and $B$. These matrices are of much lower rank than $W$, making them much smaller and easier to train.
Freeze the original weights: The original matrix $W$ is frozen during fine-tuning. This means its values are not changed, ensuring that the general knowledge captured during pretraining is preserved.

Step 3: Training

Train $A$ and $B$: During the fine-tuning process, only the two small matrices, $A$ and $B$, are trained. This allows the model to adapt to new data without requiring updates to the entire weight matrix.
Apply the low-rank update: The update matrix $\Delta W = A \times B$ is added to the original matrix $W$. This small update allows the model to fine-tune itself for the new task.

Step 4: Inference

Inference with LoRA: At inference time, you can either compute the update $A \times B$ on the fly or precompute the new matrix $W_{\text{new}} = W + A \times B$. The latter option is often more efficient, as it allows you to use the updated weight matrix just like a normal layer in the model.

Do We Need $A$ and $B$ During Inference?

This brings up an important question: Do we need $A$ and $B$ during inference?

The answer depends on whether you want to compute the update matrix $A \times B$ during inference or precompute it after training.

Compute on the fly: If you compute $A \times B$ during inference, you will need both $A$ and $B$ at inference time. This allows you to dynamically adjust the weights as needed.
Precompute $W_{\text{new}}$: Alternatively, you can precompute $W_{\text{new}} = W + A \times B$ after training is complete. In this case, you no longer need $A$ and $B$ during inference, as you’re using the updated weight matrix directly. This method is computationally more efficient during inference.

Python Example: Applying LoRA to a Simple Matrix

Now that we’ve explained how LoRA works, let’s look at a simple Python example that demonstrates the LoRA technique using random matrices. This example shows how to update a large matrix using the product of two smaller, low-rank matrices.

import numpy as np

# Step 1: Initialize the large matrix W (e.g., a 6x6 matrix)
d_out = 6  # Output dimension
d_in = 6   # Input dimension

# Simulate the large matrix W (initialized randomly)
W = np.random.randn(d_out, d_in)
print("Original W matrix:")
print(W)

# Step 2: Initialize low-rank matrices A and B
r = 2  # Rank of the low-rank approximation

# A has dimensions (d_out, r)
A = np.random.randn(d_out, r)

# B has dimensions (r, d_in)
B = np.random.randn(r, d_in)

# Step 3: Compute the update matrix (A * B)
delta_W = np.dot(A, B)  # This gives us the low-rank update

# Step 4: Update the original matrix W
W_new = W + delta_W  # New matrix after LoRA update

print("\nUpdate matrix (A * B):")
print(delta_W)

print("\nUpdated W matrix:")
print(W_new)

Output:

Original W matrix:
[[ 0.57982682  0.56981892 -0.31648517  0.74758125 -0.31424568 -1.25113497]
 [-0.45936964 -1.21938562  0.34957394  0.38277855  0.66722387  0.71315171]
 ...
 
Update matrix (A * B):
[[ 0.25153752 -0.31847642  0.27297871  0.16230158 -0.20924836  0.45321087]
 [-0.47939022  0.38251002 -0.21547047 -0.27092739  0.32487688 -0.51983357]
 ...
 
Updated W matrix:
[[ 0.83136434  0.2513425  -0.04350646  0.90988283 -0.52349405 -0.7979241 ]
 [-0.93875986 -0.8368756   0.13410347  0.11185116  0.99210075  0.19331814]

Conclusion

The LoRA technique is a powerful and efficient way to fine-tune large models without needing to update all their parameters. By learning low-rank matrices $A$ and $B$, we can significantly reduce the computational and memory costs of fine-tuning while still allowing the model to adapt to new tasks.

Understanding Python Dunder Methods

2024-09-05T00:00:00+00:00

Dunder methods (short for “double underscore methods”) are special methods in Python that have double underscores (__) before and after their names. They define how objects of a class behave when used with built-in operations such as print(), indexing, comparisons, or mathematical operations. Here’s a breakdown of some common dunder methods and how you can use them to customize your Python objects.

1. `init` – The Constructor

The __init__ method is the constructor of a class and is called when you create a new instance. This is where you can initialize attributes for the object.

class Person:
    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name

p = Person("Sarah")
print(p.name)  # Outputs: Sarah

Explanation: In this example, we define a Person class with a constructor that takes a name as an argument. When an instance of the Person class is created, the __init__ method is called to initialize the name attribute.

2. `str` – String Representation for Humans

The __str__ method controls how an object is printed or represented as a string using print() or str().

class Person:
    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name

    def __str__(self):
        return f"Person: {self.name}"

p = Person("Sarah")
print(p)  # Outputs: Person: Sarah

Explanation: Here, the __str__ method provides a human-readable representation of the object. When you print the object, it displays "Person: Sarah" instead of the default representation like <Person object at 0x...>.

3. `repr` – String Representation for Developers

The __repr__ method is like __str__ but is meant to provide a detailed, unambiguous string that can be used for debugging.

class Person:
    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name

    def __repr__(self):
        return f"Person({self.name!r})"

p = Person("Sarah")
print(repr(p))  # Outputs: Person('Sarah')

Explanation: The __repr__ method provides a string that shows exactly how to recreate the object, making it helpful for debugging.

4. `len` – Define Object Length

If you want to define a length for your object, implement the __len__ method, which is used by the len() function.

class Group:
    def __init__(self, members):
        self.members = members

    def __len__(self):
        return len(self.members)

g = Group(["Sarah", "John", "Alice"])
print(len(g))  # Outputs: 3

Explanation: The __len__ method returns the length of the group, which is the number of members. Here, len(g) gives us 3.

5. `getitem` – Access Items with Indexing

The __getitem__ method allows your object to be indexed like a list or dictionary.

class Group:
    def __init__(self, members):
        self.members = members

    def __getitem__(self, index):
        return self.members[index]

g = Group(["Sarah", "John", "Alice"])
print(g[1])  # Outputs: John

Explanation: The __getitem__ method defines how the object should behave when accessed with square brackets (e.g., g[1]).

6. `setitem` – Set Items with Indexing

The __setitem__ method defines how an object’s item can be updated via indexing.

class Group:
    def __init__(self):
        self.members = {}

    def __setitem__(self, key, value):
        self.members[key] = value

g = Group()
g[0] = "Sarah"
print(g.members)  # Outputs: {0: 'Sarah'}

Explanation: Here, we can assign values to g using indexing, and the __setitem__ method updates the members dictionary.

7. `delitem` – Delete Items with Indexing

The __delitem__ method allows you to delete an item from the object using del.

class Group:
    def __init__(self, members):
        self.members = members

    def __delitem__(self, index):
        del self.members[index]

g = Group(["Sarah", "John", "Alice"])
del g[1]
print(g.members)  # Outputs: ['Sarah', 'Alice']

Explanation: The __delitem__ method is called when you delete an item from the object using del.

8. `call` – Make Objects Callable

If you want an object to behave like a function, implement the __call__ method.

class Greet:
    def __call__(self, name):
        return f"Hello, {name}!"

greet = Greet()
print(greet("Sarah"))  # Outputs: Hello, Sarah!

Explanation: Here, the Greet object can be called like a function because of the __call__ method.

9. `eq` – Equality Comparison

The __eq__ method defines how two objects should be compared for equality using ==.

class Point:
    def __init__(self, x, y):
        self.x = x
        self.y = y

    def __eq__(self, other):
        return self.x == other.x and self.y == other.y

p1 = Point(1, 2)
p2 = Point(1, 2)
print(p1 == p2)  # Outputs: True

Explanation: The __eq__ method compares two Point objects for equality by checking their x and y values.

10. `lt` – Less Than Comparison

The __lt__ method allows you to define how one object should be compared to another using the less-than operator (<).

class Point:
    def __init__(self, x, y):
        self.x = x
        self.y = y

    def __lt__(self, other):
        return (self.x + self.y) < (other.x + other.y)

p1 = Point(1, 2)
p2 = Point(2, 3)
print(p1 < p2)  # Outputs: True

Explanation: The __lt__ method compares two Point objects by their combined x and y values.

11. `add` – Define Addition Behavior

The __add__ method allows you to define how objects should behave when added with the + operator.

class Vector:
    def __init__(self, x, y):
        self.x = x
        self.y = y

    def __add__(self, other):
        return Vector(self.x + other.x, self.y + other.y)

    def __repr__(self):
        return f"Vector({self.x}, {self.y})"

v1 = Vector(1, 2)
v2 = Vector(3, 4)
print(v1 + v2)  # Outputs: Vector(4, 6)

Explanation: The __add__ method enables the addition of two Vector objects by adding their x and y values together.

12. `enter` and `exit` – Context Managers

These methods define the behavior of an object when used in a with statement, allowing for setup and teardown logic.

class File:
    def __init__(self, filename, mode):
        self.filename = filename
        self.mode = mode

    def __enter__(self):
        self.file = open(self.filename, self.mode)
        return self.file

    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):
        self.file.close()

with File("example.txt", "w") as f:
    f.write("Hello, World!")

Explanation: The __enter__ method opens the file, and the __exit__ method ensures the file is closed, even if an error occurs.

13. `contains` – Define `in` Keyword Behavior

The __contains__ method defines how the in keyword works for your object.

class Group:
    def __init__(self, members):
        self.members = members

    def __contains__(self, item):
        return item in self.members

g = Group(["Sarah", "John", "Alice"])
print("John" in g)  # Outputs: True

Explanation: The __contains__ method allows you to check if an item is in the Group using the in keyword.

14. `iter` – Make Objects Iterable

The __iter__ method makes your object iterable so it can be used in a for loop.

class Group:
    def __init__(self, members):


        self.members = members

    def __iter__(self):
        return iter(self.members)

g = Group(["Sarah", "John", "Alice"])
for member in g:
    print(member)
# Outputs: Sarah, John, Alice

Explanation: The __iter__ method allows the Group object to be used in a loop to iterate over its members.

These are just some of the many dunder methods available in Python. They give you a lot of control over how objects behave and interact with Python’s built-in functionality, making your code more flexible and powerful. You can execute all the code in this google colab notebook.

Extract Structured Text Using Llama

2024-09-05T00:00:00+00:00

Extracting complex data such as one or multiple dates from text can be tedious and time-consuming, especially when dealing with long articles or documents. Fortunately, using language models like Llama, we can automate this process. This blog post will show you how to extract dates from a passage of text using the Llama model with Ollama, and we’ll walk through the code step-by-step.

Step 1: Install and Set Up Ollama

First, you need to install Ollama, a tool that allows you to run large language models, like Llama, locally. Run the following command to install it:

curl -fsSL https://ollama.com/install.sh | sh

After installation, you can run the Llama model locally by executing:

ollama run llama3.1

This sets up the environment for using Llama to handle the text extraction task.

Step 2: Define the Date and Dates Classes

Before jumping into the extraction process, we need to structure our data. The Date class represents individual dates, while the Dates class holds a list of these dates.

class Date(BaseModel):
    """
    Represents a date with day, month, and year.
    """
    day: int = Field(description="Day of the month")
    month: int = Field(description="Month of the year")
    year: int = Field(description="Year")

class Dates(BaseModel):
    """
    Represents a list of dates (Dates class).
    """
    dates: List[Date] = Field(..., description="List of dates.")

These classes allow us to store each date with the day, month, and year clearly defined.

Step 3: Set Up the DatesExtractor Class

Next, we create the DatesExtractor class, which handles the process of extracting dates from the text. The class initializes a prompt, which instructs the Llama model to find and return the dates in a structured JSON format. Here’s how the class is structured:

class DatesExtractor:
    """
    Extracts dates from a given passage and returns them in JSON format.
    """
    def __init__(self, model_name: str = "llama3.1", temperature: float = 0):
        self.prompt = ChatPromptTemplate.from_messages(
            [
                (
                    "system",
                    "You are a helpful AI assistant. Extract dates from the given passage and return them in JSON format.",
                ),
                (
                    "user",
                    "Identify the dates from the passage and extract the day, month and year. Return the dates as a JSON object with a 'dates' key containing a list of date objects. Each date object should have 'day', 'month', and 'year' keys. Return the number of month, not name. Here is the text: {passage}",
                ),
            ]
        )

        self.llm = ChatOllama(model=model_name, temperature=temperature)
        self.output_parser = JsonOutputParser()
        self.chain = self.prompt | self.llm | self.output_parser

In this section, we define the AI’s behavior through a prompt. The AI is instructed to extract dates from the text, ensuring that each date is formatted with day, month (as a number), and year, and returned as a JSON object.

Step 4: Extracting Dates from a Passage

Once the DatesExtractor class is set up, we define the extract method, which takes a passage of text as input, processes it through the Llama model, and returns the extracted dates.

    def extract(self, passage: str) -> Dates:
        try:
            response = self.chain.invoke({"passage": passage})
            return Dates(**response)
        except Exception as e:
            logger.error(f"Error in extracting dates: {e}")
            return None

The extract method calls the AI model with the given text and captures the result. It returns the dates in a structured format, or logs an error if something goes wrong during processing.

Step 5: Running the Date Extractor

To see the code in action, let’s extract dates from a passage that contains various date formats:

if __name__ == "__main__":
    passage = "The history of the automobile is marked by key milestones. Karl Benz built the first car on 29/01/1886, revolutionizing transportation. Later, on June 8th, 1948, Porsche unveiled its iconic 356 model. In 1964-04-17, Ford introduced the Mustang, forever changing the sports car industry. Electric cars gained momentum, with Tesla's Model S launched on July 22, 2012."

    extractor = DatesExtractor()
    dates: Dates = extractor.extract(passage)
    for date in dates.dates:
        print(date)

In this passage, we have dates in different formats such as dd/mm/yyyy, dd/mmm/yyyy, and yyyy-mm-dd. When we run the extractor, the AI will return each of these dates in a standardized JSON format.

The output of this code looks like:

day=29 month=1 year=1886
day=8 month=6 year=1948
day=17 month=4 year=1964
day=22 month=7 year=2012

Conclusion

Using the combination of Ollama and Llama, extracting dates from text is simple and efficient. By structuring the data using Pydantic models and leveraging powerful AI tools, we can easily handle date extraction tasks in various formats. Whether you’re working with historical data, articles, or other documents, this approach allows for a smooth and scalable solution to date extraction.

Code

The full code is available here

LLM Demo

2024-03-13T00:00:00+00:00

Writed: A Private AI Journal That Runs in Your Browser

Writed is a markdown journal with a built-in AI assistant that runs entirely on your device. You write your entries, then ask the AI questions about your own thoughts—and none of it ever leaves your browser tab. No account, no cloud upload, no tracking.

Most “AI journal” apps ship your most private writing off to a server for embedding and inference. Writed flips that: the embeddings and the chat model both run locally, so your journal stays yours.

How It Works

You write entries in a clean markdown editor, organized by date, and they auto-save locally as you type. Behind the scenes, Writed indexes those entries on-device so they become searchable.

When you ask a question, it runs a hybrid retrieval over your own entries and answers with citations—pointing you back to the exact entries and dates the answer came from. All of that retrieval and generation happens inside the browser tab using WebGPU and WebAssembly, with local embedding and chat models.

What Makes It Different

On-device AI — local embeddings and chat; your writing never leaves the browser.
Markdown, date-based entries — simple, fast, and yours.
Retrieval with citations — answers grounded in your real entries, with sources and dates.
Offline-first — works without a connection after the initial load.
Own your data — export the whole journal as a ZIP of plain markdown files anytime.
No account required — open it and start writing.
Open source — released under the MIT license.

It’s free and permanently so for a single device—unlimited entries, on-device AI, and full export. A planned Pro tier ($5/month) adds end-to-end encrypted cloud sync, multi-device access, and automatic backups, without giving up the privacy model.

Writed is a practical demonstration of how far in-browser AI has come: real retrieval-augmented chat over personal data, with zero server round-trips.

Try it out Writed.

Talk to Your Data Using GPT-3.5

2023-10-06T00:00:00+00:00

Demo https://qmaruf-talk-to-data.hf.space

Have you ever contemplated the possibility of engaging in a conversation with your data? Imagine conversing with a chatbot that possesses comprehensive knowledge about your dataset. This intriguing problem is the focus of this note, where we explore how to achieve it using the ChatGPT API.

To illustrate this concept, we will employ the first book of the Harry Potter series, “Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone,” as our dataset. Our goal is to engage in a conversation with the content of the book. To facilitate this, we will utilize LangChain, a powerful tool for parsing and interacting with data, in conjunction with the ChatGPT API.

Our first step is to load the relevant data from the book. We will use the TextLoader from LangChain to achieve this:

from langchain.document_loaders import TextLoader

book_txt = 'docs/potter1.txt'
loader = TextLoader(book_txt)
docs = loader.load()

Next, we need to break down the text into manageable chunks. This allows us to work with smaller sections of the book at a time. We define the chunk_size and chunk_overlap parameters for this purpose:

chunk_size = 1000
chunk_overlap = 250

In the next step, we will create a text splitter based on RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter. This text splitter is ideal for generic content and uses a character parameter list for segmentation. It sequentially applies these characters to divide text into appropriately sized chunks. It ensures that paragraphs, sentences, and words stay together for maximum semantic coherence.

from langchain.text_splitter import RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter

text_splitter = RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter(
    chunk_size=chunk_size,
    chunk_overlap=chunk_overlap,
    length_function=len
)

splits = text_splitter.split_documents(docs)

Here length_function measures the length of given chunks. We will use len as our length_function for this example.

The split_documents method will return a list of Document objects. For example, here is the first Document object from the list. We can print this content using the print method: print(splits[0])

Document(page_content="Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone\n\n\nCHAPTER ONE\n\nTHE BOY WHO LIVED\n\nMr. and Mrs. Dursley, of number four, Privet Drive, were proud to say\nthat they were perfectly normal, thank you very much. They were the last\npeople you'd expect to be involved in anything strange or mysterious,\nbecause they just didn't hold with such nonsense.\n\nMr. Dursley was the director of a firm called Grunnings, which made\ndrills. He was a big, beefy man with hardly any neck, although he did\nhave a very large mustache. Mrs. Dursley was thin and blonde and had\nnearly twice the usual amount of neck, which came in very useful as she\nspent so much of her time craning over garden fences, spying on the\nneighbors. The Dursleys had a small son called Dudley and in their\nopinion there was no finer boy anywhere.", metadata={'source': 'docs/potter1.txt'})

In this step, we will create a vector database to store the embeddings of the chunks. For any query, we search the vector database and extract the most similar chunks to the query. We will use Chroma vector db for this example.

from langchain.vectorstores import Chroma
from langchain.embeddings.openai import OpenAIEmbeddings

embedding = OpenAIEmbeddings()
persist_directory = 'docs/chroma'

vectordb = Chroma.from_documents(
    documents=splits,
    embedding=embedding,
    persist_directory=persist_directory
)

Here embedding is the OpenAI embedding function. persist_directory is the directory to store the embeddings.

We can now search the vector database using vectordb.max_marginal_relevance_search (MMR) function. MMR returns chunks selected using the maximal marginal relevance. Maximal marginal relevance optimizes for similarity to query and diversity among selected documents. It takes the query string and returns the k most similar chunks. We will use k=5 for this example.

query = "Write the names of all of Harry Potter's teachers."
answers = vectordb.max_marginal_relevance_search(query, k=10)

Here answers contain the k most similar chunks to the query.

We can check all the chunks using a for loop. Here is the first answer from the list.

Professor Flitwick, the Charms teacher, was a tiny little wizard who had to stand on a pile of books to see over his desk. At the start of their first class, he took the roll call, and when he reached Harry's name, he gave an excited squeak and toppled out of sight. Professor McGonagall was again different. Harry had been quite right to think she wasn't a teacher to cross. Strict and clever, she gave them a talking-to the moment they sat  down in her first class.

Up to this point, we have created the vector database and searched the database using a query for relevant documents. Now we will use the ChatGPT API to chat with the content of the book. We will use answers as chat context.

Now using langchain, we will create a ChatOpenAI model to interact with the ChatGPT API.

from langchain.chat_models import ChatOpenAI
llm = ChatOpenAI(model_name='gpt-3.5-turbo', temperature=0)

Here model_name is the name of the model. We will use gpt-3.5-turbo for this example. temperature will control the randomness of the chatbot response.

We will also define a retriever to extract the most similar chunks to the query.

retriever = vectordb.as_retriever(search_type="mmr", search_kwargs={'k': 10, 'fetch_k': 50})

Now we will create a RetrievalQA chain using the llm and retriever.

qa_chain = RetrievalQA.from_chain_type(
    llm=llm,
    retriever=retriever
)

Here qa_chain combines a retriever and a language model to retrieve relevant documents for a query and answer questions based on those documents.

Let’s check how qa_chain performs for a query. We will use the same query that we used earlier.

response = qa_chain({"query": query})
print(response['result'])

Professor Flitwick, Professor McGonagall, Professor Sprout, Professor Binns, Professor Snape, Madam Hooch

We can use a custom prompt to tell qa_chain how we want the answer. Here it is:

from langchain.prompts import PromptTemplate

template = """Use only the following context to answer the question at the end. Always say "thanks for asking!" at the end of the answer. Write a summary of the question and then give the answer.
Context: {context}
Question: {question}
Answer:
{context}
Question: {question}
Answer:"""

qa_chain_prompt = PromptTemplate.from_template(template)

We will now fit the template into the qa_chain and check the result.

qa_chain = RetrievalQA.from_chain_type(
    llm,
    retriever=retriever,
    chain_type_kwargs={"prompt": qa_chain_prompt}
)
response = qa_chain({"query": query})
print(response['result'])

The names of all of Harry Potter's teachers are Professor Flitwick, Professor McGonagall, Professor Binns, Professor Snape, Madam Hooch, and Hagrid. Thanks for asking!

qa_chain is able to understand the context of the query and give a reasonable answer.

Until now, qa_chain has no memory. That means we can’t ask any question based on the previous answer. We will use ConversationBufferMemory to create a new type of chain that can remember the previous conversation. Let’s define memory as an instance of ConversationBufferMemory and use it to create a new chain named ConversationalRetrievalChain.

from langchain.memory import ConversationBufferMemory

memory = ConversationBufferMemory(
    memory_key='chat_history',
    return_messages=True
)

Here’s how to create ConversationalRetrievalChain using memory, vectordb, and llm.

qa_chain = ConversationalRetrievalChain.from_llm(
    llm=llm,
    retriever=vectordb.as_retriever(),
    memory=memory
)

We will ask three related questions to qa_chain and check the result.

q1 = "Write the names of all of Harry Potters Teachers."
q2 = "sort the name of the teacher based on how frequently they are mentioned"
q3 = "tell me more about this professor"

for q in [q1, q2, q3]:
    response = qa({'question': q})
    print (f'Q: {q}')
    print (f'A: {response["answer"]}')
    print ('\n')

Q: Write the names of all of Harry Potters Teachers.
A: The names of Harry Potter's teachers mentioned in the given context are:

1. Professor Flitwick (Charms teacher)
2. Professor McGonagall (unknown subject)
3. Professor Sprout (Herbology teacher)
4. Professor Binns (History of Magic teacher)
5. Professor Snape (Potions teacher)
6. Madam Hooch (unknown subject)
7. Professor Quirrell (unknown subject)

Please note that there may be other teachers at Hogwarts that are not mentioned in 
this context.

Q: sort the name of the teacher based on how frequently they are mentioned
A: Professor McGonagall is mentioned most frequently in the given context.

Q: tell me more about this professor
A: Professor McGonagall is described as strict and clever. She is a teacher at 
Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry and teaches Transfiguration, which 
is described as complex and dangerous magic. She gives the students a talking-to
in her first class, emphasizing the importance of taking her class seriously. 
She is also shown to be observant and recognizes Harry's talent as a Seeker in 
Quidditch, recommending him to the Gryffindor team captain. Additionally, she 
is a member of the staff and is seen interacting with other professors, such 
as Professor Flitwick.

Well, it looks like qa_chain is able to remember the previous conversation and answer the questions based on the previous conversation.

This is the end of this note. We have seen how to use langchain to create a chatbot that can chat with the content of a book. We have also seen how to create a chatbot that can remember the previous conversation.

Quazi Marufur Rahman

PyTorch Stopped Working After a Kernel Upgrade? Here's the Fix

What Is Happening?

The Fix

Why Not Just Use execstack?

Will This Break Anything?

One Thing to Keep in Mind

LoRA: Fine-tuning Large Matrices with Low Rank Adaptation

Introduction

The Problem with Fine-Tuning Large Models

Enter LoRA: Fine-Tuning with Low-Rank Matrices

Step-by-Step LoRA Algorithm

Step 1: Initialization

Step 2: LoRA Decomposition

Step 3: Training

Step 4: Inference

Do We Need \(A\) and \(B\) During Inference?

Python Example: Applying LoRA to a Simple Matrix

Output:

Conclusion

Understanding Python Dunder Methods

1. __init__ – The Constructor

2. __str__ – String Representation for Humans

3. __repr__ – String Representation for Developers

4. __len__ – Define Object Length

5. __getitem__ – Access Items with Indexing

6. __setitem__ – Set Items with Indexing

7. __delitem__ – Delete Items with Indexing

8. __call__ – Make Objects Callable

9. __eq__ – Equality Comparison

10. __lt__ – Less Than Comparison

11. __add__ – Define Addition Behavior

12. __enter__ and __exit__ – Context Managers

13. __contains__ – Define in Keyword Behavior

14. __iter__ – Make Objects Iterable

Extract Structured Text Using Llama

Step 1: Install and Set Up Ollama

Step 2: Define the Date and Dates Classes

Step 3: Set Up the DatesExtractor Class

Step 4: Extracting Dates from a Passage

Step 5: Running the Date Extractor

Conclusion

Code

LLM Demo

Writed: A Private AI Journal That Runs in Your Browser

How It Works

What Makes It Different

Talk to Your Data Using GPT-3.5

Why Not Just Use `execstack`?

1. `init` – The Constructor

2. `str` – String Representation for Humans

3. `repr` – String Representation for Developers

4. `len` – Define Object Length

5. `getitem` – Access Items with Indexing

6. `setitem` – Set Items with Indexing

7. `delitem` – Delete Items with Indexing

8. `call` – Make Objects Callable

9. `eq` – Equality Comparison

10. `lt` – Less Than Comparison

11. `add` – Define Addition Behavior

12. `enter` and `exit` – Context Managers

13. `contains` – Define `in` Keyword Behavior

14. `iter` – Make Objects Iterable